International comparisons: Lessons from successful vocational education and training systems

This briefing provides an overview of international examples of successful vocational education and training initiatives. 

The UK is underperforming relative to international peers on key indicators of vocational education, training, and early market labour access. The UK now sits above the average youth NEET rate across high-income countries, with 12.8% of 16-24 year olds NEET in 2025 compared to 9% across the EU (1). Participation in vocational pathways is also comparatively low: in 2022, 16% of 25–34 year-olds hold a vocational qualification as their highest attainment versus 23% across the OECD (2). The system is also less strongly connected to employment, with just 39% of vocational students enrolled in programmes with work-based learning compared to an OECD average of 45% (2), and only around 40% of students participating in combined school and work-based programmes compared with over 90% in high-performing countries such as Denmark and Switzerland (3). 

These gaps are compounded by lower investment and weaker early engagement, with UK students among the least likely in the OECD to undertake work experience and a declining pipeline into vocational routes, reflecting structural weaknesses in how young people are supported to transition into work. 

This briefing looks abroad to identify high-performing vocational education and training initiatives, aiming to draw lessons for how the UK can strengthen its own skills pipeline and school-to-work transitions.

Denmark 

Metrics of Success: 

• High levels of youth VET enrolment: 19% of 15-19 year-old upper-secondary students were enrolled in VET programmes in Denmark (OECD, 2023) (3).
• Lower than average NEET Levels: the level of NEETs aged 15–29 has been rather stable since 2018 (at 8.6% in 2023, below the EU-27 average of 11.2%) (4).
• Denmark has one of the highest participation rates in continuing education in the EU, with around 180,000 people taking one or more AMU (Arbejdsmarkedsuddannelser - Labour Market Training) courses in 2024 (5).

Denmark’s adult training system, AMU, offers a vast range of flexible courses:

• Short, stackable courses which can last from a half day to several weeks (6).
• Short, flexible AMU courses facilitate transitions between jobs/industries and equip workers for developments in new technology (6).
• Workers can take single AMU courses or combine them to suit their needs (6).
• AMU courses are the result of collaboration between employers and unions in both public and private sectors (5).
• Constantly evolving courses are backed by sophisticated skills intelligence systems and constantly evolving courses.
• AMU has 11 continuing education committees covering various sectors. They monitor industry trends and devise new courses to keep Denmark at the forefront of the green transition (5).

Denmark’s skills system is backed by robust, established skills anticipation practices: 

• Denmark uses a range of tools and methodologies for skills anticipation, including skills assessments, forecasts and foresight analyses.
• Skills assessments are conducted by the Danish Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment and regional labour market offices, with updates provided twice a year through the Labour Market Balance (5).

Denmark’s VET governance is characterised by strong partnership between the State and “social partners” (employers’ and workers’ organisations). Centralised regulation is combined with decentralised delivery:

• A central body in the governance system is the National Advisory Council for VET (6).  
• Consists of about 31 members representing employers’ organisations, trade unions, and other stakeholders, and it advises the Ministry on overall VET policy (6).
• The main driver of detailed curriculum and qualification decisions is the National Trade Committees (6).
•  There are roughly 50 trade committees in Denmark, each responsible for one or more of Denmark’s 100 or so VET programmes (6).
•  A trade committee is a statutory body composed equally of 1014 representatives from the relevant employer associations and trade unions for that sector (6).
• At the local level, each vocational college has one or more Local Training Committees for each broad programme area it offers (6).
• These are subsets of the national committees or their local representatives, again including employers and employees, along with college staff (6).
• Vocational colleges are governed by boards that include social partner representatives, and they enjoy autonomy in administration and teaching methods (6).

Germany 

Metrics of success: 

• In Germany, 89% of vocational upper secondary students are enrolled in combined school and work-based programmes. This is well above the OECD average (7).
• Very high employment rates of vocational upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary graduates in the two years following their graduation. In Germany, 94% of graduates are employed, with only Iceland having higher employment rates in this group (7).
• On average across OECD countries, 14.7% of young adults aged 18-24 are not in education, employment or training (NEET), while in Germany the corresponding figure is 8.6% (7).
• The Apprenticeship is the most common educational path in Germany, with a net entry rate of 50.3% in 2023 (8).

Germany’s apprenticeship support and mentoring programmes have successfully supported disadvantaged young people struggling to access apprenticeships:

• A solution to poor apprenticeship completion rates.
• In 2022, the rate of prematurely terminated apprenticeships in Germany reached a record high of one-third (8).
• The JOBLINGE basecamp initiative has been launched in four locations across Germany since 2019 to provide support to young people throughout their apprenticeship (8).
• The programme involves 3 key pillars of support.
• A dedicated space where apprentices can study, seek advice and connect with each other.
• Basecamp staff whom apprentices can reach out to for tailored and individualised assistance in case of problems at the school, training enterprise, or in their personal life. 
• Tutoring and workshops to support apprentices academically and to help them build professional skills.

Germany’s cross-company courses and training centres mean vocational education is not limited by the capability of individual companies:

• In cases where companies are too specialised to be able to deliver all of the training content stipulated in the training regulations, apprentices are entitled to extra training courses at different companies to cover the rest of the course content.
• Germany also has inter-company training centres that provide shared training facilities for firms
• These are provided by chambers, guilds, and non-profit legal entities. One particular objective is to support the competitiveness of SMEs, allow for quality assurance, and ensure a uniform training standard (9).
• Training centres enable increasingly specialised SMEs to provide VET training centres allow for complete coverage of all elements of vocational education and training (10).
• Inter-company training centres have developed into the central venue for providing complementary centralised VET, as well as multifunctional centres of education. They are increasingly active in advanced training and continuing education, including master craftsman programmes. They also engage in occupational guidance and/or vocational preparation. 

Australia 

Metrics of success: 

• In 2025, among trade apprentices and trainees, 94.8% of apprenticeship completers were employed after training, similar to 2024 (11).
• The level of tertiary attainment among 25-64 year-olds is one of the highest among OECD and partner countries with available data (12).
• Australia has one of the largest shares of lower secondary students enrolled in vocational programmes (12). 
• Australia’s Vocational education and training in schools (VETiS) has played a key role in improving educational retention and serves as an established bridge to employment.

VETiS was introduced in the early 1990s as a policy response to concerns about stagnant school completion rates and young people's transition into the workforce (13). Here’s how it works: 

• Allows secondary school students to complete vocational qualifications while also completing school (13).
• Delivered through school-based or external training organisations, and now comprises a significant component of secondary education in Australia (nearly ¼ of students enrolled in VETis programmes in 2023) (13).
• Provide pathways into employment and further study by equipping students with practical workplace-relevant skills alongside qualifications (13).
• While there is still work to do on equal access and aligning VET in schools with labour market needs, it has seen popular uptake and plays a significant role in preparing students for employment: 
• The number of students across Australia participating in VETiS has steadily increased from around 60,000 students in 1996 to 252,105 in 2023 (13).
• In 2023, the proportion of Australian students aged 15 to 19 who participated in VETiS was estimated to be 27.1% (13).

VETiS is generally believed to offer pathways to employment and opportunities that may not otherwise be available (Polesel et al., 2004). This reflects the success of models like Germany’s dual system, where apprenticeships directly connect students with industry opportunities (13).

Singapore 

Singapore’s SkillsFuture programme has been successful in driving a nationwide culture of lifelong learning.

Purpose and international recognition: 

• SkillsFuture started in 2015 for adult education as a response to the fourth industrial revolution, to prepare Singapore’s workers for the changes brought by technological disruption and globalisation (14).
• SkillsFuture’s reach extends beyond Singapore and is commonly used as a case study for international research into lifelong learning policy. It was used as a model to develop lifelong learning courses in Vietnam, for example (14).
• SkillsFuture is delivered through a collaborative, tripartite partnership and a central government agency (14).
• Singapore has placed itself in a prime position to address barriers to lifelong learning with its collaborative partnership between the government, the workforce (represented by employers and employees), and the institutes of higher learning (14).

SkillsFuture comprises a number of key initiatives: 

• SkillsFuture Credit: provides all citizens aged 25 and above an initial credit amount they can use to offset the costs of a wide range of approved courses. Credit is topped up periodically, allowing individuals to pursue learning opportunities continuously throughout their working lives (14)
• SkillsFuture Earn and Learn Programmes: Enables fresh graduates and mid-career individuals with an alternative pathway to gaining industry-relevant skills/experience. Participants undergo structured on-the-job training with partner employers while completing a part-time diploma or post-diploma courses (14).
• SkillsFuture Work-study Degree Programmes: collaborative effort between companies and universities to design and implement curricula that seamlessly integrate theoretical knowledge with practical experience. Additionally, both entities assess students’ performance jointly, incorporating classroom learning alongside structured on-the-job training (14).

Singapore’s culture views success as more academic than vocational; SkillsFuture seeks to decouple academic success from grades and degrees:

• Course offerings range from cybersecurity to languages – the concept of “skills” is not necessarily associated with trades and crafts (14).
• Universities can also provide their own SkillsFuture courses, enabling them to work closely with the workforce and remain competitive and relevant (14).
• SkillsFuture embraces a broad definition of skills, encompassing “knowledge, application, and experience” (14).
• Every job is associated with a set of skills in SSG’s skills framework. Individuals can compare their current skills and skills required for their desired job to make informed decisions on upskilling/reskilling (14).

SkillsFuture also supports lifelong learning in later life to address demographic change and ageing. One response to Singapore’s rapidly ageing population has been increased interest in healthy ageing and, therefore, sustaining older citizens’ employability. The National Silver Academy is a lifelong learning initiative for seniors, offering short or exam-free courses focusing on life and work skills (14).

This overview is part of a mini series brought to you by The Policy Centre for Supply Chain and SMEs: Powered by Enginuity.

References

1. European Commission, Eurostat, 2025, Labour Force Survey - Young people neither in employment nor in education and training (NEET), UK Labour Force Survey. (https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/young-people-and-work-interim-report/young-people-and-work-interim-report)

2. OECD, 2023, Education at a Glance, Country Note: United Kingdom. (https://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountryNotes/EAG2023_CN_GBR_pdf.pdf)

3. OECD, 2025, Education at a Glance. (https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/education-at-a-glance-2025_1c0d9c79-en.html)

4. CEDEFOP, 2025, Vocational education and training in Denmark: short description. (https://www.cedefop.europa.eu/files/4224_en.pdf)

5. The Council for Adult and Continuing Training (The VEU Council), 2025, A Danish model for adult and continuing training. (https://www.da.dk/globalassets/uddannelse-og-kompetencer/a-danish-model-for-adult-and-continuing-training.pdf)

6. OECD, 2025, Vocational Education and Training Systems in Nine Countries. (https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2025/10/vocational-education-and-training-systems-in-nine-countries_6169d7a2/1a86eb6c-en.pdf)

7. OECD, 2023, Education at a Glance 2023: Country note, Germany. (https://gpseducation.oecd.org/Content/EAGCountryNotes/EAG2023_CN_DEU_pdf.pdf)

8. OECD, 2025, Evaluation of an Apprenticeship Support Programme for Young People in Germany. (https://www.oecd.org/content/dam/oecd/en/publications/reports/2025/05/evaluation-of-an-apprenticeship-support-programme-for-young-people-in-germany_34cb4877/287a8cdb-en.pdf)

9. German Office for International Cooperation in Vocational Education and Training (GOVET). (https://www.govet.international/en/)

10. BIBB, 2019, Tasks of the inter-company vocational training centres. (https://www.bibb.de/en/12303.php)

11. National Centre for Vocational Education Research, 2025, Apprentice and trainee outcomes 2025. (https://www.ncver.edu.au/research-and-statistics/publications/all-publications/apprentice-and-trainee-outcomes-2025)

12. Education GPS, 2025, Australia – Overview of the Education System. (https://gpseducation.oecd.org/CountryProfile?primaryCountry=AUS&treshold=10&topic=EO)

13. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management, 2025, Addressing skills shortages: vocational education and training in schools programs and the Universities Accord. (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1360080X.2025.2478962)

14. Social Sciences, 2024, Advancing Lifelong Learning in the Digital Age: A Narrative Review of Singapore’s SkillsFuture Programme. (https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/13/2/73)